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New Directions in Marine Mammal Behavioral Noise Exposure Criteria7Marine Research of the National Academy of Marine ResearchDOI: 10.29677/MR.202406_4(1).0001 However, existing synoptic data on noise disturbance and interacting additional stressors, and these newanalytical methodologies are still at an early stage of development and evaluation relative to appropriatelyscaled empirical data. As a very simple, and largely descriptive assessment, starting point, Southall et al. (2021)began to address this issue by proposing a derivation of earlier methods for evaluating and systematically assessing population-level studies for chronic and aggregate disturbances based on concepts first identified by Bejder and Samuels (2003). As a starting point for systematically reporting and assessing longer-term, population-level disturbance studies, the original approach was expanded and evaluated with selected studies primarily associated with whale watching. Such studies comprise some of the longest-term marine mammal studies conducted, and thus are the most suitable to illustrate direct linkages between behavioural responses to human disturbance (including noise disturbance) and population consequences. Factors used to identify study elements and distinguish different exposures and response characteristics were based on the approach developed by Bejder and Samuels (2003). Southall et al. (2021) applied aspects of an approach developed by Bejder and Samuels (2003) in reviewingselected peer-reviewed literature on whale watching and related tourism and long-term consequences of other anthropogenic disturbances. The studies considered included empirical measurements and modelling approaches to forecast long-term consequences in one of several categories. This included studies evaluating:kinds of studies and assessment methods for acute noise exposure events with identifiable responses from known individuals or groups to those involving sustained or repeated (chronic) exposure scenarios and potential responses at population levels. Assessing the consequences of non-lethal disturbance is challenging, requiring substantial data about behavior (before and after disturbance), physiology, life history, and population demographics. Such data are often quite limited in practice for long-lived marine mammal species. Ecological modelling and simulation studies have been adopted to overcome the logistic and practical challenges of collecting relevant life-history parameters. For instance, age-structure population assessments allow us to consider different impacts across age classes and can be coupled with new technology (such as aerial or underwater autonomous observation platforms) for rapid assessment of individual and population health conditions (Booth et al., 2022). Energetic modeling methods have also been developed to link short-termbehavioral responses to disturbance in terms of reproductive and energetic outcomes (New et al., 2014; Pirotta et al., 2021, 2022a). Going further, population consequences of multiple stressor models enable consideration of the interacting impacts of multiple and concurrent anthropogenic and environmental disturbances (NAS 2017; Pirotta et al., 2022b). New approaches to developing conservation and management strategies for longerterm, broader spatial scale aspects of disturbance need to consider not only noise disturbances, but the complex interactions of multiple stressors (e.g., pollutants, habitat changes related to climate change) (Tyack et al., 2022).Effects of whale watching, encompassing a dataset of multiple years providing long-term effects on population dynamics.Long-term effects of multiple concurrent threats, encompassing a dataset of >10 years or making use of a modelling approach to forecast long-term measures of the effects of anthropogenic activities.Long-term effects of anthropogenic activities (other than whale watching), encompassing a dataset of >10 years or making use of a modelling approach to forecast long-term measures of the effects of anthropogenic activities.